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All these new reservation products are cultural matches, but so is entrepreneurship itself. Markets, trade and importation of raw materials for manufacturing were not concepts brought here by Europeans. Sophisticated Indian trade networks veined the continent long before European contact. During the Hopewellian (200 B.C.–400 A.D.) and Mississippian (800 A.D.–1500 A.D.) periods of Native American history, Indians in Illinois, New York and Ohio traded for conch shells from the Gulf of Mexico, obsidian from what is now Yellowstone Park, copper from the Great Lakes, gold and silver from what is now Canada, fossil shark’s teeth from Chesapeake Bay, and mica and crystal from the Appalachians. Southwestern tribes traded in shells, copper bells, and macaws and parrots from what is now Mexico, and turquoise from what is today California. Indians on the Missouri in the Dakotas traded for marine shells from the Pacific and Gulf coasts.

After the Europeans’ arrival, Ojibwe (not English, Spanish, or French) became the lingua franca of trade up to the 18th century. Great Lakes tribes established portages and elaborate schedules for water-borne transportation of furs and other trade goods. Choctaw-based Mobilian was the language of commerce between tribes and the new settlers on the lower Mississippi and the Gulf Coast. In the Northeast, both the Dutch and English adopted as legal tender the Indians’ wampum, intricately crafted strings of cylindrical beads.

It is likely that the Lakota ancestors of Hunter and Red Cloud traded buffalo meat, hides and horns for food crops at Arikara trading centers along the upper Missouri Valley. The forebears of Simon and TurningRobe may have bargained at inter-tribal markets along the Columbia River, where Nez Perce, Wishram, Wasco, Wyampam, Chinookian-speaking coastal people, and members of other tribes traded wares.

The framers of the U.S. Constitution acknowledged the substance and scope of these indigenous exchange networks by adopting the Commerce Clause to regulate trade “with the Indian tribes.”Comment:  Although you occasionally see two tribes meet in movies or TV shows to settle a grievance or arrange a marriage, you rarely see any trade activity. Indians engaged in the beaver trade, guiding Europeans on trade missions…you almost never see anything like that. It’s more comfortable to imagine Indians sitting in their tee pee villages plotting war or worshiping nature. Either way they’re savages. We don’t have to credit them with being clever, resourceful businessmen like the Europeans were.

For more on the subject, see Early Inuit Were Entrepreneurs, NCAIED Celebrates 40 Under 40, and Native Women Are Entrepreneurs.

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This is as it should be–a giant step toward decolonization or decolonization. It’s a step taken over recent years by the Sicangu Lakota, who had been known for so many years as the Rosebud Sioux; and those known as Pima are now Tohono O’odham, the Desert people, as they called themselves from time immemorial. And the people of Winnebago are once again the HoChunk, and the Omaha have reclaimed the traditional spelling U-Mo’n-Ho’n.

We must ask ourselves, why was it that the Europeans especially wanted to change the tribal or clan names of the peoples they encountered in the New World, and on all other continents? Surely, it wasn’t just the inability of the European invaders to spell the names so the indigenous peoples and their landmarks could be recorded in their reports back home.

Why was the highest mountain on planet Earth renamed from its Tibetan name of Qomlangma to Mount Everest, after an obscure 19th Century Surveyor General of British colonial India? Or why was Denali Peak, which was named for the Athabascan people of Alaska renamed McKinley, after the 25th President of the United States? What does it signify to them? Conquest? Possession? Superiority?Trimble suggests the answer to his own questions:Most of the reservation homelands were named to facilitate administration on the part of colonial overseers–the so-called Indian Office of the late 19th Century. The tribe or group of tribes adapted to those names to facilitate delivery of rations and annuities guaranteed under treaty. However, the replacement of traditional names with new Anglo designations may also have been done as a step to break the tribal structure and disappear their people into the mythical melting pot as Manifest Destiny demanded.

To force Indian nations to take on an alien tribal name in English was cruel enough; but often the tribe had to take the name of the military outpost that was built to keep them in virtual bondage. Fort Sill Apache; Fort Peck Assiniboine-Sioux; and Three Affiliated Tribes of Fort Berthold, are examples. Others had to adopt the name of the Christian church imposed on their village, such as Santa Ana, San Juan, San Ildefonso, and Santa Clara Pueblos.Comment:  I think the answers to Trimble’s questions–”Conquest? Possession? Superiority?”–are yes, yes, and yes.

I’m not sure Euro-Americans renamed places as a conscious effort to “break the tribal structure.” Rather, they probably didn’t know or care that the Indians had their names. They probably treated the Indian names as incomprehensible noise.

Trimble’s “superiority” may come closest to the mark. Americans had the racist presumption that they were the only people who mattered. That the Indians thoughts and feelings were like a dog’s: irrelevant and inconsequential.

Many Americans still think this way, as countless debates over Indian mascots and Hollywood movies prove. “We’re stereotyping Indians?” they say. “Who cares? We’re white people and they’re not.”

For more on the subject, see Renaming Mt. Diablo and Renaming British Columbia.

Below:  The central plaza at San Ildefonso, with the round kiva at left and the old church at right.

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“This is a rare opportunity to honor Montana’s Indian veterans, and all veterans, as well as to honor the important work of retaining native languages,” said Society Director Richard Sims.

The Smithsonian created the exhibit to tell the story of Indian Marines and soldiers who used their coded native languages as a weapon against U.S. enemies.

The Navajo code talkers during World War II have received the most recognition, but the exhibit shows that Native Americans were first enlisted to relay messages in their own languages during World War I.

Marines and soldiers from 16 tribal nations served as code talkers, including the Assiniboine, Sioux, Navajo, Hopi, Cherokee, Chippewa and Cree.

The exhibit also addresses the irony the Indians faced as they transitioned from Indian boarding schools, where they were punished for speaking their native languages, to being honored for using that language as a vital secret weapon in combat.

Montana has the opportunity to bring the exhibit to the state because the historical society is an affiliate of the Smithsonian.

Montana Historical Society Board of Trustees member George Horse Capture of Great Falls initiated the exhibit when he was a Smithsonian curator, and will serve as guest curator of the Montana exhibit.

The historical society plans to launch the exhibit in Helena in April and then take it to the state’s reservations. The society is also working with tribal veterans’ representatives and tribal councils who want to contribute in their own way in honoring and celebrating their warriors during each four-day event.

The society is seeking sponsors to help cover the $35,000 to $40,000 cost for creating and presenting the traveling exhibit.

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Mayan Warrior Dance Song

(Maya)
Conex, conex palanxen, xicubin, xicubin yocolquin.
Conex, conex palanxen, xicubin, xicubin yocolquin.
Xola mayola, xola mayol, ea, ea, ea, o.
Conex, conex palanxen, xicubin, xicubin yocolquin.Which translates to:Song to the Sun
Mayan Warrior Dance Song

(English)
Let’s go, let’s hurry boys, for the sun is coming out.
Let’s go, let’s hurry boys, for the sun is coming out.
Sho-la ma-yo-la, sho-la ma-yol, Ay-ah, ay-ah, ay-ah oh.*
Let’s go, let’s hurry boys, for the sun is coming out.

*This is phonetically how to say this line.

Comment:  Xtoles could be a couple thousand years old, so I presume it qualifies as the oldest known Native song.

P.S. I don’t think it’s grammatically correct to put the Spanish word Los in front of the Maya word Xtoles. Especially since Xtoles doesn’t appear to be a plural word.

For more on the subject, see Natives Sing It Their Way.

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No written records of Native Americans exist before the 1500s, when the European seamen discovered the American continent. The period before 1500s is considered by scholars as prehistoric. During that time and after, Native Americans had created their own states, history and art. Native American art is thought to be the link between natives and Europeans, the only way to communicate ideas between the two cultures. When the Europeans came, slight changes in Native American art resulted, due to the new way of life that native people had to take.

Native American art is our way to reach the native Americans’ views and history, to learn more about them. That’s why culture researchers explore Native American art and make it an object of many scholastic discussions. There exists a qualification of the Native American culture, branching off into five main culture districts or zones, which is done for easier interpretation of the works of art and culture. They are, namely, the East, the Plains, Southwest and Northwest coast, and the Arctic. The forms of Native American art differ considerably regarding different districts. That depends on the different weather conditions, various traditions among different groups of natives, natural environment, social order, different religious beliefs, and so on.

The difference of Native American works of art in different districts is so astounding that we may even wonder if they came from one continent. The basic reason for this is about the purpose of art in the lifestyle of Native Americans. Native American art served many purposes, and most of all it was meant to be the visual representation of different myths and religious beliefs. The mythological origin of Native American art gives some reason why the forms of art differ significantly in different parts of the continent: because of the different myths and religions that existed between tribes. Native American art is done to meet various needs; to be a traditional linkage between generations (like the carved totem poles); to serve practical necessities( Natives created beautifully painted pots, vases, utensils, woven mats, rugs, blankets, coverings, home-made clothes and jewelry in astonishing combinations of colours); to be a symbol of rituals (for example art was used in the ritual for rain, and in healing ceremonies, for which different masks and rich garments were produced.)

Native American art is so various and hard to categorize also because of the materials used for the creative activities. Many artists used materials, which they found in their natural surroundings. Feathers, porcupine quills, tree bark, wood, animal skins and hair were all combined in the artistic creation. Different artists used different technologies for the making of beautiful things. Native American art is composed of artworks, made by carving, painting, weaving, sewing, or building. And different technologies tend to slightly vary in different regions, so that artworks are not the same, even if the same materials are used for their making.

Many Native American artworks were intended both for ceremonial purposes and for home usage in the daily life of people. Garments and different bowls served many functions. Rituals and ceremonies were so various that many artworks were produced for their accomplishment. Native Americans had rituals for almost everything: and a large part of their works of art was used for different ceremonies. Totems from Pacific Northwest were a family value and represented the people from the clan, and a lot of effort was put into making those magnificent big poles.  Masks were used for communication with the spirits in healing ceremonies. To serve its purpose to the point, a work of art was expected to be beautifully done, so that artists had to make the best they could to produce majestic artworks.

Nowadays there are two branches of Native American art- artists gone into the mainstream of making contemporary art-like photographs, paintings on canvas or performances, and others who continue to work using traditional Native American art technologies.

Article by Robbie Darmona – an article writer (http://www.robbiedarmona.com) who writes on a wide variety of subjects. For more information visit www.artsbury.com.

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In the United States, a large amount of information is taught in local schools. This information is often vital to the success of a student. Math, science, English, physical education, and history are taught in many schools. The information taught in those subjects varies from school to school. Unfortunately, not everything that should be taught in a lesson plan is.

The history of Native American Indians is something that many individuals know little about. Native American Indian history is taught in most schools located on Indian reservations, but they should not be the only place where it is taught. Most public and private schools quickly cover Native American Indian history, but many students do not learn everything they could or should.

If Native American Indian history is not extensively covered in your child’s school, there are a number of ways that you can educate them yourself. Many parents wonder why they should continue to educate their children on the history of Native American Indians. The answer varies, but there are number of different ways that a child could benefit from being educated on Native American Indian history.

As previously mentioned, there are a number of different ways to educate your children on the history of Native American Indians. Many of these ways can include the whole family. In addition to educating your child, your family could also spend quality time together. What could be more fun than that?

In history classes across the country, most students are educated in the form of books. Books are a valuable source of information, but there are ways to educate a child and have fun at the same time. Parents are encouraged to take their children to a Native American Indian museum. Native American Indian museums are located all around the country. They allow children to physically see Native American Indian artifacts and much more. This experience is more memorable than reading a passage out of a book.

Another way to educate your children on Native American Indian history is to play a game. There are a number of online websites that offer homemade game ideas or you could develop your own. Board games or flash card games can be developed. These games can easily include important Native American Indian history facts. Children of all ages love games and it is a fun way to learn at the same time.

In addition to playing a history game or visiting a museum, it is also possible to learn the history of Native American Indians by watching movies. There are a wide variety of educational movies available for parents and children of all ages. Watching these movies together as a family is a great way for everyone to educate themselves on the struggles that the Native American Indians faced and the victories that they achieved.

It has been said that children that are educated on the history of multiple cultures will grow-up more diverse. Don’t limit your child by only letting their school educate them. You never know, but you may learn valuable Native American Indian history facts yourself.

Edward Charkow is the administrator for American Indian History. For more information please visit: http://www.truth-is.info/native-american-indians/

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There is a lot of Native American influence in the Sedona area. Their culture is rich and goes back for centuries. All you have to do is walk down the streets of beautiful Sedona and you will see and feel the rich tribal ethnicity that traces back to the Native Americans.

Native American tribes have been in the area for thousands of years. It wasn’t even until in the latter part of the 19th century that Europeans would finally arrive in the Sedona area to stay. So, when you visit Sedona you will find a profound Native American influence still in place. The influence is strong, from the arts and crafts that are sold in the town to the beautiful rock paintings that have been discovered in the area.

Archaeologists have been able to figure out some interesting facts about the ancient residents this region. Most archaeologists believe that the nomadic people that lived in the area of Sedona so many thousands or years ago were probably hunting the big game animals of the Ice Age.

Then about 7,000 years ago the culture of the Native Americans in the region began to change. They started to spend more time gathering plants and hunting animals that were considered small game. Stone tools, as well as projectile points, have been discovered from this time period near Dry Creek.

It wasn’t until 700 AD that the native culture in the area substantially altered. At this time civilization turned more to farming and making beautiful pottery pieces. The group in the area then was known as the Hakataya, and another group, the Hohokam, came along to join them. Later another tribe of people known as the Sinagua arrived in the region; these people all merged to become the Southern Sinagua. In the unique cliff dwellings that can still be seen, and in some of the rock art that can be found, you can find evidence of their life and culture. In fact one place where you can see their interesting cliff dwellings from so many years ago is the Palatki cliff dwelling.

Still today there is a strong Native American presence in Sedona. Some of the modern day tribes that are in the area include the Tonto Apaches, as well as the Yavapai, and you’ll find that the Hopi and Navajo Indians also have a strong influence in the region. You’ll find evidence of their culture in the artwork, the ceremonies, and the deep respect for this beautiful land. Many places in the Sedona area are considered to be sacred, so visitors should be careful to respect this.

Visitors to Sedona can view numerous ancient native artifacts. There is the cliff dwelling known as the Honanki, as well as Woo Canyon where you can see native art from so years ago. You’ll also find Native American dance, art, and music showcased, and visitors can purchase beautiful Native American jewelry and pottery.

Enchantment Resort is located in beautiful Boynton Canyon in Sedona Arizona. A luxury vacation resort, Enchantment offers private casitas, breathtaking views of red rock country, and a AAA Four Diamond restaurant dining experience. The on-site spa, Mii amo, offers Native American spa treatments that are steeped in tradition.

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“They used to come into the park, driving,” Povah recalled. Indians would bring beadwork, leatherwork, clothing, “and ask Dad to buy it. That’s how we started our collection.”

Now 88 years old, Povah has donated more than 1,200 items from her family’s collection – from Indian crafts to a 1930s-vintage yellow Yellowstone tour bus – to the Museum of the Rockies.

“It’s really the place I wanted it to be,” Povah said recently at a museum reception. Other museums were interested, but, she said, “I felt holding it in Montana, near the source of the Indians who made so much of the collection” was “appropriate.”

“I am so excited,” said Shelley McKamey, the museum’s director and dean. “This is the most significant historic collection we’ve received since the founding of our museum” more than 50 years ago.

The Hamilton Stores company, founded by Ellie’s father, Charles, was Yellowstone’s concessionaire from 1915 – when visitors still traveled through the park in horse-drawn stages – until 2002.

The collection includes documents, Indian crafts, historic photos and several old vehicles. There’s a tow truck made from an old tour bus, and a cart that used to carry garbage to feed the park’s bears. A horse-drawn green Conoco gasoline wagon offers a reminder of the park’s first opening up to automobiles in 1916.

The public won’t be able to see most of the collection right away. It will take a few years to catalog everything and conserve things properly. Eventually it will become a traveling exhibit.

McKamey said many of her favorite pieces are buckskin or cloth Indian dresses, which are fragile. Some are decorated with porcupine quills or with metal thimbles.

Along with the collection, Povah gave the museum a gift of $250,000 over five years, which will be used to match federal funds and cover the costs of the collection’s care, storage, cataloguing and preservation, McKamey said. Lots of people want to donate things to the museum, she said, but it needs the resources to care for them.

“Ellie’s generosity made it possible,” McKamey said.

“This collection of artifacts and this funding is going to help us interpret the cultural history of Yellowstone National Park in a way it’s never been done,” said Michael Fox, the museum’s history curator.

Several Indian craft items from the collection were on display at last Thursday’s event. There was a beaded Indian vest with American flag and rose designs from the Nez Perce tribe, a Navajo wedding basket, Pueblo Indian bowls, and woven hats from the Hupa Indians of California.

Seated in a wheelchair, Povah said she’d broken her leg in a fall, but she has always been active. Last fall, she said, she took a trip to Africa with her kids and their spouses, and was only home in Santa Barbara, Calif., for a few days before packing up for a 10-day horseback trip in Mexico.

Did she ride horseback, too?

“Of course!” she said, laughing.

She was clearly enjoying the museum’s celebration of her donation.

“I think this is going to be a wonderful day,” Povah said.

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In America today, there are many discussions about racism, diversity and cultures. Some believe we are a melting pot with blended families and everyone is treated equal. While others view our society as one of disparate treatment, inequities among the races and injustice and unfair treatment inflicted by the majority population towards minorities.

One culture of people that does not appear often in today’s headlines is the Native Americans. In my opinion, there is little discussion about their experience and their sacrifices. While much is said in regards to Jewish holocaust experience, Vietnamese and Latino immigration experience and the African American slavery experience, there is little mention of the first inhabitants of American soil.

After reading the Fact of Life by George Russell, the Native American experience interests me. Thus, I pose the question did the U.S. Government’s negative impact on Native Americans caused an annihilation of the first inhabitants of American soil. If they have not been annihilated have they blended into mainstream America without a trace of their own culture and heritage? If they still exist, as a separate culture/ race of people, I want to know how did they survive and what is their status in today’s society. This paper is my attempt to uncover the answers to the above questions and reach a conclusion in regards to the Native Americans.

Prior to 1492, Native Americans roamed the plains of the vast lands that later became known as the United States of America. During this time, they had their own culture, language, and society. The Native Americans culture was similar to other people that inherited the earth. They had a sense of family, values, spirituality, and survival, as they harvested the land, hunted fish and made a living for them. These Native Americans existed in tribal relationships with each tribe having their own language, nutritional habits, and religion and spirituality and beliefs system. Some of these tribes were known as of Mogollon, Atezc, Cherokee, and Navajo.

Before the 1492 invasion by Europeans, the first inhabitants existed in a vast population. However, after the Europeans began their colonization and land confiscation, many changes occurred for the people who later became known as Native Indians/Native Americans. These changes occurred as a direct result of the actions of European settlers. With the arrival of Europeans settlers and government’s intervention, the Indians land system changed forever.

As the Europeans descended on this land, they begin to put their own government in place. The Dutch, French, English and Spanish created a government relevant to their native experience and began to claim territorial rights, in North America. This was a way for these invaders to set up laws that they thought would be a practical and appropriate manner to acquire the land.

Although, initially the new setters were seeking to compromise and establish mutually acceptable terms. Over time, those first inhabitants were deprived of their rights of land ownership with severe consequences to them. The initial policies established by the settlers, required payment for the acquisition of land from the native landholders. However, the government did not uniformly enforce this policy to all Indians. Occasionally they would pay the Indians and other times they would acquire the land by right of occupancy. Thus, these settlers were manipulating the Native Americans and the squatter’s rights prevailed. The land was acquired from Native Americans by these settlers by a squatter merely taking up residency on the property with no payment to the Indians. This became the prevailing practice as competition for land ownership existed among the settlers.

As the settlers’ families increased so did the need to acquire more land. Frustrations over previous land ownership laws became prevalent among the settlers. Many were looking for justification to enhance their cause and quest for additional land ownership. Not only did they look for revisions in laws but religious justification for their actions. Some of the arguments that were presented were that the Indians did not own the land by natural right, that the Bible required man to inherit the earth and the Indians were not considered men. Thus, laws begin to formulate solely to benefit the settlers. Therefore, violence and bloodshed erupted between the settlers and Indians.

Congress step in and bridge a gap between farmer and Indian in 1756 appointing Sir William Johnson and Edmund Atkin as superintendents of the newly created north and south districts for Indian affairs. Their report indicated that colonist frequently and fraudulently purchased Indian lands or occupied the land without consent or benefit of title. The relationships between the settlers and Indian became more strained, and armed conflicts increased.

America’s attention was diverted to a war with Great Britain, and the issues between the settlers and the Indians were decided in the settler’s favor. The government created a new structure based on the Articles of Confederation. This new structure as well as Congress enactment of laws, disadvantaged the Indians’ rights to land ownership.

The American government began to conquer villages and tribal nations with the intent to make treaties with the Indians. These treaties would arbitrarily draw boundaries lines in favor of the government. The government became the landowner and force the Native Americans into land reserved and designated solely for them. This land later became known as Indian Reservations.

After the new government intervened, the American Indians were not considered a citizen. This was the precursor to the government forcing the Indians off their land and turning some into slaves, or prisoner of war. Not only were they stripped of their land, enslaved, some were killed, many were also plagued with diseases, and relegated to land that was not as desirable. The annihilation of the American Indians began.

The beginning of Columbus sparked a 400-year cycle and the exploitation, enslavement, and genocide has plagued the American Indians for centuries. In 400 years, a massive number of Indians have been exterminated through genocide.

Summary

This reminds me of the disadvantage small farmers of the 21st- century. After a number of disappointments (treaties, land grant, housing) American Indians continue to develop strong cultural boundaries between them and the government. Now in the 21st century, we need to appreciate the accomplishment and contributions that American Indians have made to humanity and the land. In a Washington Post article dated Friday, July 27, 2001, some appreciation and acknowledgment was bestowed upon the Navajo Indians for their contributions made during World War II. This is just one step in recognizing the Native Americans for their diversity, culture and values that they bring to all America.

Former President Kennedy further amplifies this in his quote below.

“It seems a basic requirement to study the history of our Indian people. America has much to learn about the heritage of our American Indians. Only through this study can we as a nation do what must be done if our treatment of the American Indian is not to be marked down for all time as a national disgrace.” John F. Kennedy-1963

Reference:
Russell, George (1997 80p) The Fact of Life: Russell Publication, Phoenix, AZ
R. Douglas-Hurt (C. 1987) (290p) Indian Agriculture in America
Steve, Vogel (Washington Post, July 27, 2001 ( B3p ) Creator of World War II Code Are Given Gold Medals
Internet Sources:
Newhouse, Heather ” The Mogollon Culture (The Preclassic Period (Mesoamerican Civilization) 2000 B.C. to A.D. 250

Written by Dennis S. Murray Sr

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